Press Reference
Basic Data
Censorship characterizes Myanmar media. The Union of Myanmar, as Burma was renamed in one thousand nine hundred eighty nine after a military junta established the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), is managed by a rigid socialist government directed by the armed compels. Media can only report news sanctioned by the government. Minimal international news is reported. Aung Zaw, editor of Irrawaddy magazine, described journalism in Myanmar as "comatose."
At least four Burmese-language and two English daily newspapers circulate. Myanmar newspapers print official decrees such as the one thousand nine hundred eighty two citizenship law. Myanma Alin (Fresh Light of Myanmar), published since 1914, is distributed in four languages and contains daily government press releases and negative international wire articles about countries critical of Myanmar. Editorial cartoons denounce the opposition's National League for Democracy. In summer 1988, Burmese media shortly experienced entertainment of rigid rules. Millions of democratic protestors peacefully demonstrated. Government newspapers reported factually about this democratic movement, and newspapers and periodicals were created to chronicle events. On September Legitimate, the military led by Lieutenant General Khin Nyunt violently subdued the protestors. The junta stopped all but two newspapers, and they reverted to printing warnings, military slogans, and martial laws for Burmese citizens. Khin Nyunt blamed the media for provoking the demonstrations and accused reporters of falsifying stories.
Conditions for Burmese journalists have worsened. Monitored by the Military Intelligence Service, imprisonment, or hard labor sentences, reporters cautiously prepare media that the government cannot interpret as offensive. Myanmar officials are especially angered by media they think might cause people to regard the government disrespectfully. Most Burmese realize that news is for the most part manufactured to portray the junta as Myanmar's best rulers.
Imprisoned Burmese editors San San Nweh and U Win Tin received the two thousand one Golden Pen of Freedom from the World Association of Newspapers. Charged with supporting freedom of expression and democracy, the editors refused to denounce those beliefs in order to be released. Like many jailed Burmese journalists, they suffered poor health due to their captivity and hittings by prison guards. San San Nweh was specifically arrested for providing human rights reports to European journalists. Editor of the daily Hanthawati newspaper, U Win Tin was attempted and convicted by a military court for allegations of belonging to the Communist Party of Burma. His incarceration was lengthened because writing materials were found in his cell.
Burmese media professionals have persevered. Exiled Burmese journalists can write factually about their homeland for international media use. Many Burmese journalists live in Thailand so they can clandestinely distribute publications into neighboring Myanmar. In Norway, the Democratic Voice of Burma is a dissident news service.
State-Press Relations
Prior to military rule in the late twentieth century, Burma had an active media. Burma's very first newspaper, The Maulmain Chronicle , was published in one thousand eight hundred thirty six as an English weekly while Burma was a British colony. The Burmese monarch, King Mindon, encouraged newspaper publication and entertained editors at his palace. He supported the creation of Yadanaopon , the very first newspaper printed entirely in Burmese. The media was essential in resisting colonial rulers. Burma gained independence from Fine Britain in 1948. At least thirty Burmese, English, and Chinese language newspapers were permitted to report domestic and international news, interview prime ministers, and interact with journalists worldwide. U Thaung founded Kyemon (The Mirror Daily) in 1957, and its 90,000 circulation was Burma's largest. Albeit most southeastern Asian governments promoted state-regulated censorship, Burma supported freedom of the press.
A one thousand nine hundred sixty two military coup which resulted in General Ne Win announcing himself dictator of Burma altered the country's media. Wanting to isolate Burma to achieve his socialist agenda, the general determined which newspapers could be nationalized and remain in circulation and which publications would be halted. He formed the Press Scrutiny Board, which still existed in the early twenty-first century, to regulate censorship. All journalism organizations were disbanded. Ne Win demanded the arrest of media professionals he considered hostile to his policies. Foreign journalists were ordered to depart Burma, and many Burmese reporters either abandon their jobs or went into exile.
Political parties were united into the Burma Socialist Program Party, which further tightened control of the press. The one thousand nine hundred sixty two Printers' and Publishers' Registration Act stated that only government-approved media could apply for the annual licenses that were mandatory for operation. Media was ordered to concentrate on topics supportive of Burma's socialist revolution. By December 1965, private newspapers were prohibited. Military leaders established The Working People's Daily as the official distributor of government news. The bureaucracy managed access to limited supplies of newsprint and paper. The traditional Burmese media was effectively paralyzed.
Censorship
Censorship involves inking over passages, tearing out pages, and preventing material from being printed by reviewing material before approving it for publication. Many magazines and books in Myanmar are missing thick sections and covered with black ink. Some censors can be bribed to assure publication.
The government attempts to block news regarding any negative events in Burma, with the end of keeping the current government in power. Because reporters cannot prepare factual accounts about topics that the government considers taboo, news is unreliable. Political enemies such as opposition leaders are described unfavorably, and all state-owned media is required to present these opinions. Events that are covered internationally, such as opposition leader and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Aung San Suu Kyi's release in 1995, are restricted from Myanmar media. The Ministry of Information indoctrinates government journalists at journalism courses. Reporters are expected to write pro-government propaganda and never criticize leaders or their political deeds. Articles are not to mention political corruption, reform, education, and HIV/AIDS. Even stories telling about losing Myanmar sports teams and torrential rainstorms are barred. The press is not welcome at government meetings.
In 1998, the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) identified Myanmar and Indonesia as the most hostile Asian environments for media. Rumors circulated that Myanmar military police had tormented and killed two journalists because their newspaper, The Mirror , had accidentally published a photograph of Khin Nyunt next to a headline describing criminals. Such placement of photographs and headlines has at times occurred, and readers realize it might be a subversive reaction to bearing censorship laws and political conditions. Journalists often attempt to hide information and criticisms in media through careful wording or pics.
Unlike other newspapers in Myanmar, The Myanmar Times is not coerced to serve with junta press regulations. Published weekly in Burmese and English at Rangoon since 2000, The Myanmar Times , with a total circulation of 30,000, is edited by an Australian journalist, Ross Dunkley. He has been permitted to print sensational articles about discussions inbetween the Myanmar junta and Suu Kyi. Media professionals speculate that Dunkley is permitted more press freedom because Khin Nyunt and Office of Strategic Studies (OSS) representatives are using The Myanmar Times to coax international readers to accept the junta. Other publications are also designed to attract foreign approval, especially in the form of investments. For example, in the 1990s, the monthly business magazines Dana (Prosperity) and Myanmar Dana were issued in a superior quality compared to other Burmese media in order to impress readers.
Attitude Toward Foreign Media
Any international news included in Myanmar media is censored. Events such as political strife, deposed leaders, human rights trials, and student protests in other countries, especially in Asia, are either omitted or described shortly with no details. Foreign reporters are discouraged from visiting Myanmar and sometimes can only come in the country by concealing their profession and securing a tourist visa. The junta deports and blacklists foreign correspondents who attempt to report on the opposition movement. Any reporters that the Myanmar authorities permit in the country are closely monitored.
Broadcast Media
Because Myanmar is impoverished, isolated, and only has electrical services in approximately ten percent of its territory, people have limited use of radios and televisions. Sources estimated that there were Three.Trio million radios and 80,000 televisions in Myanmar in 2001. The Myanmar government radio station, Burma Broadcasting Service, airs broadcasts that primarily reach urban populations. The government-monitored transmissions play only approved programs, which do not include Western songs or other broadcasts considered contrary to government policies. Shortwave radios are the only means for Burmese residents to build up access to foreign news reports. Some Burmese can receive Voice of America and British Broadcasting Corporation (Big black cock) programming. They can also secretly broadcast reports to listeners who can pick up their signal.
Initiated in 1980, the government-owned television station has color transmission capabilities but only broadcasts a few shows on evenings and weekends. The Movie Act of one thousand nine hundred eighty five outlined what media could gauze. Internet access in Burma is infrequent, and computer laws require government approval for use or ownership of computers, modems, and fax machines which can connect Myanmar with international resources and influences.
Bibliography
Bunge, Frederica M., ed. Burma: A Country Probe . 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division Library of Congress, 1983.
Luzoe. Myanmar Newspaper Reader . Kensington, MD: Dunwoody Press, 1996.
Neumann, A. Lin. "The Survival of Burmese Journalism." Harvard Asia Quarterly six (Winter 2002). Available from www.fas.harvard.edu .
Nunn, Godfrey R., compiler. Burmese and Thai Newspapers: An International Union List . Taipei: Ch'eng-wen Pub. Co., 1972.
Thaung, U. A Journalist, a General, and an Army in Burma . Bangkok: White Lotus, 1995.